Figures
Abstract
The bacterial adenylyl cyclase toxins CyaA from Bordetella pertussis and edema factor from Bacillus anthracis as well as soluble guanylyl cyclase α1β1 synthesize the cyclic pyrimidine nucleotide cCMP. These data raise the question to which effector proteins cCMP binds. Recently, we reported that cCMP activates the regulatory subunits RIα and RIIα of cAMP-dependent protein kinase. In this study, we used two cCMP agarose matrices as novel tools in combination with immunoblotting and mass spectrometry to identify cCMP-binding proteins. In agreement with our functional data, RIα and RIIα were identified as cCMP-binding proteins. These data corroborate the notion that cAMP-dependent protein kinase may serve as a cCMP target.
Citation: Hammerschmidt A, Chatterji B, Zeiser J, Schröder A, Genieser H-G, Pich A, et al. (2012) Binding of Regulatory Subunits of Cyclic AMP-Dependent Protein Kinase to Cyclic CMP Agarose. PLoS ONE 7(7): e39848. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039848
Editor: Andreas Hofmann, Griffith University, Australia
Received: May 11, 2012; Accepted: May 31, 2012; Published: July 9, 2012
Copyright: © 2012 Hammerschmidt et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: This work was supported by a grant of the Hannover Biomedical Research School to A.H. and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft grant Se 529/5-2 to R.S. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The corresponding author Roland Seifert serves as Academic Editor for PLoS ONE. This does not alter the authors’ adherence to all the PLoS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.
Introduction
Previous studies claimed that in addition to adenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) and (cytidine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate) cGMP [1], [2], the cyclic pyrimidine nucleotide cytidine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate (cCMP) may play a role as second messenger molecule [3]. However, studies on cellular effects of cCMP were not reproducible [4] and technical problems hampered the determination of tentative cytidylyl cyclase activity in mammalian cells [5], [6]. Moreover, a postulated cCMP-specific phosphodiesterase could not be identified so far [7]. In fact, several known phosphodiesterases do not cleave cCMP [8]. With refined radiometric and liquid chromatography- mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based methods we could recently show that the highly purified bacterial adenylyl cyclase toxins CyaA from Bordetella pertussis and edema factor from Bacillus anthracis, in addition to cAMP, produce cCMP [9]. Furthermore, the highly purified soluble guanylyl cyclase α1β1 along with cGMP, produces cCMP in a nitric oxide-dependent manner [10]. In addition, the regulatory subunits of cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA), RIα and RIIα, are activated not only by cAMP, but by cCMP as well [11]. These recent data indicate that cCMP may, indeed, play a role as second messenger.
The aim of our present study was to identify cCMP-binding proteins. As methodological approach, we synthesized and tested 2′-6-aminohexylcarbamoyl-cCMP (2′-AHC-cCMP) agarose and 4-6-aminohexyl-cCMP (4-AH-cCMP) agarose and a corresponding control agarose (Figure 1). In 2′-AHC-cCMP agarose, the nucleoside 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate (cNMP) is linked to the matrix via the 2′-O-ribosyl group, and in 4-AH-cCMP agarose via the 4-NH group of the pyrimidine ring. Hence accessibility of the affinity ligand to proteins is different in the two matrices. Bound proteins were subsequently analyzed by immunoblotting and LC-MS. The cNMP-agarose approach is very useful at identifying cNMP-binding proteins [12]. Here, we show that in accordance with our enzymological data, cCMP-agarose binds RIα and RIIα.
A, EtOH-NH agarose (control agarose); B, 2′-AHC-cCMP agarose; C, 4-AH-cCMP agarose. The matrices shown in this figure were used as novel tools for identification of cCMP-binding proteins. Please, note the different attachments of the affinity ligand to the matrix in B and C.
Materials and Methods
Materials
2′-AHC-cCMP agarose was synthesized by analogy to other 2′-AHC-agarose matrices [13]. Syntheses of 4-AH-cCMP and 4-AH-cCMP agarose were in accordance to literature procedures [14], [15]. Both cCMP agaroses were prepared with ligand densities of ∼6 µMol/mL of settled gel. cCMP (purity > 99,8%) was from Biolog Life Science Institute (Bremen, Germany). Anti-RIα Ig (sc-136231) was purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, CA, USA). This antibody also recognizes RIβ. All other reagents and cell culture media were purchased from standard suppliers.
A and B, cell lysates of HeLa cells were incubated with 2′-AHC-cCMP agarose, 4-AH-cCMP agarose or EtOH-NH agarose (control agarose). In competition experiments, cCMP (2 mM) was added to cCMP agarose samples. Input designates cell lysate before incubation with agarose. C, cell lysates of HeLa cells were incubated with 2′-AHC-cCMP agarose or control agarose. RIα was detected by immunoblotting with an antibody. Numbers at the left margins of immunoblots designate markers of molecular mass standards. Representative immunoblots are shown. A and B were from the same experiment, different exposures were shown. Similar data were obtained in three independent experiments.
Cell Culture
B103 rat neuroblastoma cells (kindly provided by Dr. E. Zoref-Shani,, Tel-Aviv, Israel) [16] were cultured in MEM RAA medium supplemented with 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum at 37°C and 5% (v/v) CO2. Human HeLa cervix carcinoma cells were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection and were cultured in DMEM medium supplemented with 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum at 37°C and 5% (v/v) CO2. Human HEK293 embryonic kidney cells were from the American Type Culture Collection and were cultured in DMEM medium supplemented with 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum, non-essential amino acids and sodium pyruvate at 37°C and 5% (v/v) CO2. HL-60 human promyelocytic leukemia cells (kindly provided by Dr. P. Gierschik, Ulm, Germany) [17] were cultured in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 10% (v/v) horse bovine serum, non-essential amino acids and sodium pyruvate at 37°C and 5% (v/v) CO2. J774 mouse macrophages [18] were obtained from Dr. I. Just, Hannover, Germany and were cultured in DMEM medium supplemented with 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum and 2 mM L-glutamine at 37°C and 5% (v/v) CO2.
The highly abundant proteins myosin-Ig, α-actinin-4 and cytoplasmic actin 1 bound to the 4-AH-cCMP agarose matrix non-specifically. Proteins in the ∼45 kDa region represent RIα (43 kDa) and RIIα (46 kDa), respectively, and bound to the matrix specifically since competition with cCMP (2 mM) eliminated these bands from the gel. Numbers at the right margin of the gel designate markers of molecular mass standards. After photography, the gel was cut into small pieces, and proteins were identified by MALDI and LC-MALDI mass spectrometry.
Peptides of the 43 kDa region of gels were digested and analyzed by MALDI-MS. A detailed analysis of the peptides is shown in Table 2. Peaks labelled by asterisk were subjected to MS/MS analysis.
Peptides of the 46 kDa region of gels were digested and analyzed by MALDI-MS. A detailed analysis of the peptides is shown in Table 3. Peaks labelled by asterisk were subjected to MS/MS analysis.
cCMP Agarose Affinity Chromatography
Cells were harvested and suspended in lysis buffer consisting of 40 mM β-glycerolphosphate, 100 mM NaF, 4 mM Na3VO4, 2% (m/v) Triton X-100, 100 mM NaCl, 60 mM NaPPi and 20 mM Tris/HCl, pH 7.5. Protein concentration was determined using the BCA protein assay. 2′-AHC-cCMP agarose, 4-AH-cCMP agarose and EtOH-NH agarose (30 µl each) were equilibrated three times with wash buffer consisting of 1 mM dithiothreitol, 1% (m/v) Triton X-100, 1 mM Na3VO4, 50 mM NaF, 154 mM NaCl and 20 mM Tris/HCl, pH 7.5. Agarose beads were incubated with 2 mg of cell lysate protein in wash buffer (total volume 500 µl) in the presence of 100 µM isobutyl-methylxanthine under rotation at 30 rpm at 4°C overnight. In order to detect non-specific binding, 2 mM cCMP was included in some samples. Samples were then centrifuged at 1,000 g for 3 min at 4°C, and beads were washed three times with 500 µl of wash buffer, followed by addition of 25 µl of 2× sample buffer. Samples were heated for 10 min at 95°C. For alkylation of cysteine residues 1 µL of an acrylamide solution (40%, m/v) was added and incubated at room temperature for 30 min. Proteins were subsequently separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate gel electrophoresis in gels containing 10% (m/v) acrylamide.
Immunoblotting
Gels were blotted onto nitrocellulose membranes. Membranes were incubated with anti-RIα Ig (1∶500) over night, followed by a 2 h incubation with anti-mouse IgG from sheep (1∶2,000). Bands were visualized using the Signal WestPico Luminol Enhancer and Stable Peroxidase Solution (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA).
Sample Preparation for MS Analysis
Following photography for documentation, protein-containing gel lanes were cut into small pieces and destained with ACN (50%, v/v) in 20 mM NH4HCO3. Subsequently, ACN (100%) was added until gel pieces were dry and ACN was removed in a vacuum centrifuge. Trypsin was added at a concentration of 10 ng/µL in 20 mM NH4CO3 and 10% (v/v) ACN and the protein digest was performed at 37°C over night. Peptides were extracted by incubation of samples with 50 µl of 10% (v/v) ACN and 0.5% (v/v) trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) at room temperature and shaking at 300 rpm for 30 min. The supernatant fluid was transferred into a new vial, and the extraction was repeated twice using increasing concentrations of ACN (30%, 50%). Following vacuum drying, samples were dissolved in 5 µl of 5% (v/v) ACN and 0.2% (v/v) TFA for matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI)-MS analysis. Samples (0.5 µl) were spotted onto a MALDI target plate (AB Sciex, Darmstadt, Germany) and mixed with 0.8 µl α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (CHCA) (4 mg/mL in 50% ACN, 0.2% TFA) using the dried droplet method.
LC Analysis
Peptide separation was performed by reversed phase chromatography using a nano-LC system (Dionex, Idstein, Germany) which consists of an autosampler (Famos), a loading pump (Switchos), a gradient pump (Ultimate) and a microfraction collector (Probot). An aliquot of up to 20 µL of each sample was injected onto a C18 trap column (PepMap 300 µm×5 mm, 3 µm, 100 Å, Dionex) with 2% (v/v) acetonitrile (ACN) in 0.1% (v/v) TFA and a flow rate of 30 µL/min. Peptides were eluted onto a separation column (PepMap, C18 reversed phase material, 75 µm×150 mm, 3 µm, 100 Å, Dionex) and separated using eluent A with 5% (v/v) acetonitrile in 0.1% (v/v) TFA and eluent B with 80% (v/v) acetonitrile in 0.1% (v/v) TFA with a gradient from 10% to 40% eluent B in 134 min and 40% to 100% eluent B in 10 min. Samples were spotted directly onto a MALDI target plate (AB Sciex) that had been prespotted with CHCA matrix as described above. A sheath liquid of 50% (v/v) ACN was applied and subsequently spots were recrystallized using 50% (v/v) ACN and 0.1% (v/v) TFA.
MALDI-MS/MS and Protein Identification
Samples were analyzed by MALDI-MS using the (time-of-flight/ time-of-flight) TOF/TOF 5800 mass spectrometer (AB Sciex). MS spectra were calibrated using external calibration with a peptide standard (AB Sciex). For internal calibration peptides with m/z values of 842.51 and 2211.103 descending from trypsin were used. MS/MS calibration was performed using fragments of the angiotensin peptide m/z 1296.685 present in the peptide standard. Initially, samples were measured in MS mode. The 30 most intense peaks were selected for fragmentation and MS/MS-analysis. MS spectra were searched against the SwissProt/Uniprot database using the Mascot search engine version 2.2.04 (Matrix Science, London, UK) and the results were processed with Protein Pilot software 3.0 (AB Sciex). Error tolerance was set to 100 ppm for precursor masses and 0.3 Da for fragment masses. Methionine oxidation and cysteine alkylation by propionamide were used as modifications. Proteins were considered identified if at least two peptides with a peptide ion score of each ≥ 25 each were identified.
Results
Identification of PKA RIα by Immunoblotting
The cNMP agarose affinity approach has already been proven to be successful at identifying cNMP-binding proteins [12], [15]. PKA RIα is expressed in many cell types [1]. We probed both 2′-AHC-cCMP agarose and 4-AH-cCMP agarose in HeLa cells, a widely used cell culture model (Figure 2A and 2B). Both matrices bound RIα as assessed by immunoblotting. Binding was specific since cCMP strongly inhibited RIα binding to cCMP matrices, and the control agarose devoid of the cCMP moiety did not bind RIα. In J774 mouse macrophages, 2′-AHC-cCMP agarose also bound RIα in a specific manner as assessed by the use of cCMP as competing ligand and control agarose (Figure 2C). 4-AH-cCMP agarose was more effective than 2′-AHC agarose at binding RIα (compare Figure 2A versus Figure 2B and 2C). Therefore, all further experiments were performed with 4-AH-cCMP agarose.
Identification of RIα and RIIα by MALDI-MS/MS
Figure S1 shows the sequence alignment of human RIα and RIIα. The sequence identity between the two isoforms amounts to 38%, but the amino acid sequences are sufficiently different from each other to allow for unequivocal protein identification by peptide analysis via MALDI-MS/MS. Figure 3 shows the Coomassie Blue-stained gel of cell lysates of HL-60 cells following incubation with 4-AH-cCMP agarose. The gel shows two bands in the ∼45 kDa region that were competed for by cCMP. The gel was cut into thin slices, proteins were digested and peptides were analyzed by MALDI-MS/MS. This analysis showed that highly abundant proteins, i.e. myosin-Ig, α-actinin-4 and cytoplasmic actin bound non-specifically to 4-AH-cCMP agarose, i.e. the binding of these proteins was not competed for by cCMP (Figure 3). In contrast, the bands in the ∼45 kDa region competed for by cCMP were identified as RIα and RIIα. Figure 4 and 5 show representative peptide precursor MS spectra for RIα and RIIα from HEK293 cells, respectively. Table 1 provides a summary of the MALDI-MS/MS analysis of the ∼45 kDa region of HeLa cells, HEK293 cells, HL-60 cells and B103 cells. In all four cell types, RIα and RIIα were identified with sequence coverages ranging from 9–27%, the number of identified peptides ranging from 3–9 and highly significant combined Mascot score ranging from 80–428. Tables 2 and 3 list the amino acid sequences of peptides analyzed in Figures 4 and 5.
We further refined the analysis of proteins bound to 4-AH-cCMP agarose by separating peptides of the 45 kDa region using reversed phase chromatography prior to MALDI-MS/MS (LC-MALDI). Tables 4, 5, 6 show that in this analysis, RIα and RIIα were unequivocally identified in B103 cells, HEK293 cells and HL-60 cells, the number of identified peptides ranged from 5–19 and peptide ion scores of individual peptides ranged from 26–159.
Discussion
For many years, research on cCMP barely progressed because of non-reproducible results [3], [4] technical difficulties in determination of the activity of cCMP-forming enzymes [5], [6] lack of sufficiently sensitive and specific cCMP detection techniques and absence of experimental tools to detect cCMP-binding proteins [3]. Recently, we could unequivocally demonstrate that certain bacterial adenylyl cyclase toxins also produce cCMP [9] and recombinant soluble guanylyl cyclase α1β1 does so, too [10]. Moreover, we showed that the recombinant regulatory subunits RIα and RIIα of PKA bind cCMP, resulting in dissociation of the R subunits from the catalytic subunits and subsequent protein phosphorylation [11]. Thus, a functional effect of cCMP on clearly defined proteins was finally shown.
Considering the success of the cNMP agarose approach to identify cNMP-binding proteins [12], [15] the recent results on cCMP synthesis and cCMP effects on PKA prompted us to synthesize and test two cCMP agaroses (Figure 1) in order to identify cCMP-binding proteins. The application of both cCMP agaroses was straightforward, EtOH-NH agarose and competition with cCMP serving as specificity control (Figure 2 and 3). In immunoblotting experiments we detected RIα (Figure 2). In MALDI-MS/MS analysis, a traditional approach analyzing gel slices (Figure 3, 4 and 5 and Tables 1, 2, 3) and in a more advanced approach applying additional reversed phase chromatography prior to MS analysis (Tables 4, 5, 6), we unequivocally identified RIα and RIIα in several cell types as proteins specifically binding to 4-AH-cCMP agarose.
We were somewhat surprised that the cCMP-agarose approach worked so well considering the fact that cCMP is only a low-potency activator of PKA [11]. RIα appears to possess considerable conformational flexibility since the attachment of the affinity ligand to the matrix, either via the 2′-O-ribosyl group or the 4-NH group of the pyrimidine base worked. The higher efficacy of 4-AH-cCMP agarose compared to 2′-AHC-cCMP agarose at binding RIα can be explained by the fact that the 2′-OH group of cNMPs is important for interaction with the protein [19]. Thus, our data provide a compelling example for the notion that low-affinity interactions between a protein and a ligand cannot necessarily be dismissed as non-specific. Exceedingly high affinity of a protein to a ligand may impede with subsequent dissociation of the protein from the affinity matrix [12], [15]. Evidently, in cCMP agarose matrices, steric ligand accessibility and the balance between sufficient binding affinity and subsequent protein elution are quite right. In intact cells, cCMP, due to its stability (see discussion below) [8] may accumulate in specific PKA-containing cell compartments so that sufficiently high cCMP concentrations for PKA activation build up. In fact, in a recent study, we have shown that in certain cells, overall cCMP concentrations are in the range of ∼30 pmol/106 cells which is just three-fold lower than the corresponding cAMP concentration [20].
In previous studies we showed that cCMP induces vasodilatation and inhibition of platelet aggregation via cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) and that cCMP also binds to purified PKG [11], [21]. However, in none of the cell types studied here and with none of the experimental approaches did we identify PKG as protein binding to cCMP agarose. This apparent discrepancy may be due to the fact that the expression of PKG is too low in the cell types studied. As a consequence, binding of PKG to cCMP agarose may be below the detection limit of the currently available mass spectrometers. Thus, in future studies, PKG-enriched cells such as platelets and smooth muscle cells will have to be examined. Alternatively or additionally, there may be steric conflicts in the binding of PKG to the two cCMP agarose matrices. A hint towards steric problems may be the fact that in contrast to the situation with PKA, cCMP is only a partial activator of PKG [11]. Accordingly, it will be necessary to develop affinity matrices with different ligand densities, space lengths between the agarose and the cNMP and different attachment positions of the cNMP to the linker. Figure 1 illustrates some of the chemical possibilities to optimize affinity matrices.
It is also noteworthy that our studies did not identify cNMP-degrading phosphodiesterases as target proteins for cCMP. Previous studies claimed the existence of a specific cCMP-degrading phosphodiesterase [7] but its molecular identity remained elusive. Rather, in a recent study, we examined a broad panel of human phosphodiesterases and found none of them to cleave cCMP [8]. Our negative cCMP affinity matrix data regarding phosphodiesterases fit to the functional data. These data raise the question through which mechanism cCMP is inactivated if it is, indeed, a second messenger. Transmembrane export may be an inactivation mechanism but the affinity of the interaction of such transporters with cCMP may be too low to be detected by our affinity ligand approach [22], [23]. In fact, transporters of the MRP family accept structurally very diverse substrates so that a specific interaction with an affinity ligand cannot necessarily be expected [23]. Lastly, in our study, we did neither detect Epac nor cNMP-regulated ion channels as cCMP-binding proteins [24], [25]. As is the case for PKG and phosphodiesterases, such negative data do not exclude the existence of other cCMP-binding proteins. These proteins may simply have gone unnoticed in our analysis for various technical reasons including suitability of affinity matrices and sensitivity of MS detection methods.
In conclusion, in this study we provided proof of principle that the use of cCMP affinity matrices is a useful approach to identify cCMP-binding proteins. We anticipate that the systematic application of this approach in terms of the development of multiple matrices and the analysis of multiple cell types, together with refined LC-MS techniques, will lead to the identification of additional cCMP-binding proteins, some of which may turn out to be specific for cCMP.
Supporting Information
Figure S1.
Sequence comparison of RIα and RIIα. Amino acid sequences of human RIα and RIIα were aligned, using the one-letter code. Sequences were aligned in http://www.uniprot.org/blast/. Sequence identity amounts to 38%.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039848.s001
(JPG)
Acknowledgments
We thank Drs. D. Bertinetti and F. Herberg (University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany) for stimulating discussions and Mrs. K. Agternkamp, A. Garbe, M. Golombek and J. von der Ohe for expert technical assistance.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: AH BC AP VK SW RS. Performed the experiments: AH BC JZ AS SW. Analyzed the data: AH BC JZ AP VK SW RS. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: HGG FS. Wrote the paper: AH BC JZ HGG AP VK FS SW RS.
References
- 1. Taylor SS, Yang J, Wu J, Haste NM, Radzio-Andzelm E, et al. (2004) PKA: a portrait of protein kinase dynamics. Biochim Biophys Acta 697: 259–269.
- 2. Hofmann F (2005) The biology of cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase. J Biol Chem 280: 1–4.
- 3. Anderson TR (1982) Cyclic cytidine 3′,5′-monophosphate (cCMP) in cell regulation. Mol Cell Endocrinol 28: 373–385.
- 4. Bloch A, Dutschman G, Maue R (1974) Cytidine 3′,5′-monophosphate (cyclic CMP). II. Initiation of leukemia L-1210 cell growth in vitro. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 59: 955–959.
- 5. Cech SY, Ignarro LJ (1977) Cytidine 3′,5′-monophosphate (cyclic CMP) formation in mammalian tissue. Science 198: 1063–1065.
- 6. Gaion RM, Krishna G (1979) Cytidylate cyclase: the product isolated by the method of Cech and Ignarro is not cytidine 3′,5′-monophosphate. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 86: 105–111.
- 7. Kuo JF, Brackett NL, Shoji M, Tse J (1978) Cytidine 3′:5′-monophosphate phosphodiesterase in mammalian tissues. Occurrence and biological involvement. J Biol Chem 253: 2518–2521.
- 8. Reinecke D, Burhenne H, Sandner P, Kaever V, Seifert R (2011) Human cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases possess a much broader substrate-specificity than previously appreciated. FEBS Lett 585: 3259–3262.
- 9. Göttle M, Dove S, Kees F, Schlossmann J, Geduhn J, et al. (2010) Cytidylyl and uridylyl cyclase activity of Bacillus anthracis edema factor and Bordetella pertussis CyaA. Biochemistry 49: 5494–5503.
- 10. Beste KY, Burhenne H, Kaever V, Stasch JP, Seifert R (2012) Nucleotidyl cyclase activity of soluble guanylyl cyclase α1β1. Biochemistry 51: 194–204.
- 11. Wolter S, Golombek M, Seifert R (2011) Differential activation of cAMP- and cGMP-dependent protein kinases by cyclic purine and pyrimidine nucleotides. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 415: 563–566.
- 12. Hanke SE, Bertinetti D, Badel A, Schweinsberg S, Genieser HG, et al. (2011) Cyclic nucleotides as affinity tools: phosphorothioate cAMP analogues address specific PKA subproteomes. New Biotechnology 28: 294–301.
- 13. Corrie JE, Pizza C, Makwana J, King RW (1992) Preparation and properties of an affinity support for purification of cyclic AMP receptor protein from Escherichia coli. Prot Exp Pur 3: 417–420.
- 14. Scofield RE, Werner RP, Wold F (1977) N4-Aminoalkyl-cytidine derivatives: Ligands for ribonuclease affinity adsorbents. Anal Biochem 77: 152–157.
- 15. Bertinetti D, Schweinsberg S, Hanke SE, Schwede F, Bertinetti O, et al. (2009) Chemical tools selectively target components of the PKA system. BMC Chem Biol 9: 3.
- 16. Schubert D, Heinemann S, Carlisle W, Tarikas H, Kimes B, et al. (1974) Clonal cell lines from the rat central nervous system. Nature 249: 224–227.
- 17. Collins SJ, Ruscetti FW, Gallagher RE, Gallo RC (1978) Terminal differentiation of human promyelocytic leukemia cells induced by dimethyl sulfoxide and other polar compounds. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 75: 2458–2462.
- 18. Ralph P, Nakoinz I (1975) Phagocytosis and cytolysis by a macrophage tumour and its cloned cell line. Nature 257: 393–394.
- 19. Kim C, Cheng CY, Saldanha SA, Taylor SS (2007) PKA-I holoenzyme structure reveals a mechanism for cAMP-dependent activation. Cell 130: 1032–1043.
- 20.
Burhenne H, Beste KY, Spangler CM, Voigt U, Kaever V, et al. (2011) Determination of cytidine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate and uridine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate in mammalian cell systems and in human urine by high-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Arch Pharmacol 38: (Suppl.) 32. (P096).
- 21. Desch M, Schinner E, Kees F, Hofmann F, Seifert R, et al. (2010) Cyclic cytidine 3′,5′-monophosphate (cCMP) signals via cGMP kinase I. FEBS Lett 584: 3979–3984.
- 22. Sager G, Ravna AW (2009) Cellular efflux of cAMP and cGMP – a question about selectivity. Mini Rev Med Chem 9: 1009–1013.
- 23. Keppler D (2011) Multidrug resistance proteins (MRPs, ABCCs): importance for pathophysiology and drug therapy. Handb Exp Pharmacol 201: 299–323.
- 24. Gloerich M, Bos JL (2010) Epac: defining a new mechanism for cAMP action. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 50: 355–375.
- 25. Biel M, Michalakis S (2009) Cyclic nucleotide-gated channels. Handb Exp Pharmacol 191: 111–136.