Introduction

“It is wisdom to know others; it is enlightenment to know one’s self.”

Lao-Tzu, 6^th century BC

Interpersonal success rests on the mind’s remarkable ability to decode and comprehend other people’s mental states. In a challenging social landscape, mindreading is the conduit through which relationships are forged, cultivated, and sustained [1], [2]. As Lao-Tzu’s quote indicates and an extensive literature has demonstrated, both admirable (e.g., empathy, compassion) and unsavory (e.g., deception, manipulation) aspects of the human condition rest squarely on the ability to read minds [3]. Indeed the utility of this skill – commonly referred to as Theory of Mind (ToM) – is most apparent when one considers the plight of individuals for whom mindreading is a decidedly problematic activity (e.g., autism spectrum disorder), a topic that has dominated psychological writings for decades [4]–[6]. But what of the converse situation, rather than focusing on impairments in mindreading, is it possible to identify factors (e.g., interventions) that may enhance ToM?

Intriguingly, preliminary investigations have revealed that mindreading can be improved under certain circumstances. Nasal administrations of oxytocin, reading literary fiction, and extended compassion-based training have all been shown to enhance ToM [7]–[9]. Extending this line of inquiry, here we considered whether a brief period of mindfulness-based meditation would similarly improve mindreading performance. In recent years, mindfulness interventions have been shown to remediate a range of clinical problems (e.g., depression, anxiety, stress) and to impact core aspects of social cognition (e.g., metacognition, self-referential thought, see [10]). Emphasizing the non-judgmental appraisal of present-moment thinking [11], [12], even brief episodes of mindfulness meditation exert profound effects on brain and behavior, effects that we suspect may extend to people’s mindreading skills.

Several strands of research highlight important linkages between mindfulness and ToM. First, mindfulness interventions enhance executive attention, a core component of mentalizing and person understanding [13]. Deployed effectively, executive attention enables perceivers to form multifaceted evaluations and impressions of other social agents that extend beyond rigid stereotype-based conceptions [1]. Second, present-moment thinking facilitates the cognitive operations that map the minds of self and others [14]. Specifically, cortical regions that support mindreading and self-referential mental activity (e.g., medial prefrontal cortex, temporal parietal junction) also play a prominent functional role during mindfulness meditation [2], [15]–[17]. Overlap in these regions likely captures the influence of self-reflection during explicit mindreading [18]. Collectively these observations suggest a straightforward prediction, mindfulness meditation may enhance ToM.

To explore this possibility, participants completed two complementary ToM tasks following a mindfulness (cf. control) intervention. One task, ‘The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test’ [19], assessed participants’ ability to decode emotions and mental states from subtle facial cues. The other task, ‘The Cyberball Social Exclusion Game’ [20] explored their capacity to empathize with others. Adoption of these tasks enabled us to consider the effects of mindfulness on two pivotal components of ToM, mental state attribution and empathic understanding [3]. Importantly, participants had no prior experience with meditation and did not complete the typical 8-week mindfulness-training program. Instead, only a brief mindfulness-intervention was employed (see also [21]).

Methods

Results

Several t-tests were conducted in order to examine inter-group differences. The success of the experimental manipulation were confirmed, such that participants in the mindfulness condition reported a greater awareness of the present moment (i.e. state mindfulness) than their counterparts in the control condition, t(70) = 6.23, p<.001, d = 1.47 (see Table 1). As expected, participants who underwent the mindfulness induction reported higher levels of state mindfulness.

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Table 1. Descriptive statistics as a function of experimental condition.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0110510.t001

Mindreading performance, as measured by the RMET, was better for participants in the mindfulness than control condition, t(70) = 5.62, p<.001, d = 1.33, confirming our prediction. Additional regression analyses were undertaken to test the predictive power of mindfulness after controlling for other variables (i.e., sex and age). Using the enter method, a significant model emerged in which mindfulness best predicted mindreading scores (standardized ß = −.41, p<.001 and an adjusted variance R² = .13, p<.001). Neither age nor sex were significant predictors in this model (ß = .05, p = .66; ß = .05, p = .65; respectively).

To assess the effect of mindfulness on empathic understanding, two coders who were blind to experimental condition and the purpose of the investigation scored the letters for empathic content (i.e., 6-point scale: 1 = not at all empathic; 6 = very empathic). The coders were instructed to consider the pro-social flavor of the letters, specifically the extent to which the writers had attempted to direct support, comfort and understanding to Ann (i.e., the excluded individual). Assessment of the inter-rater reliability indicated a high level of agreement in their ratings (Cronbach’s α = .92), scores were therefore averaged and a single measure of empathic understanding was calculated for each letter (see Table 1). Subsequent between-group analysis revealed that mindfulness participants expressed more empathic concern compared to participants in the control condition, t(70) = 2.62, p = .011, d = .62 (see Figures 1 and 2 for examples of letter excerpts). Further analysis revealed that the sex of participants did not impact empathic concern, t(70) = 1.31, p = .20.

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Figure 1. Examples of empathic letters written by participants in the mindfulness condition.

These participants expressed more empathic concern, warmth and support in their letters towards Ann (who was socially excluded in the game).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0110510.g001

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Figure 2. Examples of letters written by participants in the control condition.

These participants approached the letter writing task in a ‘matter of fact’ manner; focusing on the facts or rules of the game.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0110510.g002

In summary, significant between-group differences were found after a brief mindfulness induction. Confirming our hypotheses, participants in the mindfulness group out-performed those in control condition on both ToM tasks (i.e. mind reading and empathic expression).

Discussion

As demonstrated herein, brief mindfulness meditation enhanced core components of ToM, notably mindreading and empathic understanding. Not only were participants better able to decode complex mental states from subtle facial cues following a brief period of mindfulness meditation, so too they expressed greater empathic concern when communicating with the excluded victim of a computerized ball-tossing game. Together, these findings highlight the potent effects that even short-lived mindfulness interventions can exert on basic aspects of social-cognitive functioning (i.e., mentalizing & empathizing).

Questions remain, however, regarding the specific mechanism through which mindfulness meditation impacts ToM? One possibility is that elevated levels of metacognitive awareness facilitate mindreading and boost empathic responding [1]. A commonly articulated viewpoint is that awareness of one’s own bodily and psychological states serves as an important precursor to mentalizing. That is, accurate observations of self are required for a comprehensive understanding of others [18]. As mindfulness meditation focuses on internal (bodily and psychological) experiences, increased self-focused attention is a natural byproduct of this activity [28], [10]. It may therefore be the case that enhanced metacognitive awareness serves as the critical pathway through which brief periods of mindfulness improve ToM [29], a possibility that awaits empirical investigation.

Additional questions center on the extent to which mindfulness interventions benefit all aspects of ToM. In charting people’s mindreading skills, a fundamental distinction has been drawn between the affective and cognitive sub-components of ToM [30]. While affective ToM represents the ability to intuit what a person is feeling, cognitive ToM reflects the capacity to infer their beliefs and intentions. As the current inquiry employed tasks that consider only the affective component of ToM (i.e., RMET, empathy task), it remains unclear whether comparable improvements in mindreading would emerge on activities that tap the cognitive aspects of person understanding (e.g., false belief tasks, see also [7], [9]. Given however that mindfulness is acknowledged to enhance awareness of bodily states, emotions and cognitions [28], there is little reason to suspect that improvements in mindreading should be restricted to affective tasks. Instead, elevated metacognitive awareness may facilitate multiple strands of person understanding [1].

While previous work has highlighted the cognitive and emotional benefits of long-term meditation training [10], here we demonstrated comparable effects on mindreading following only a brief (i.e., 5-minute) mindfulness intervention. The current results are far from unique, however. Elsewhere, researchers have shown that even brief mindfulness training can improve performance in a variety of domains, including: executive function, visual-spatial processing, working memory and impulse control (e.g., [31], [22], [32]). Of course, that brief episodes of mindfulness appear to facilitate processing much like extended training regimes raises a host of important questions pertaining to the underlying processes, mechanisms of change, strength, and duration of the respective effects. In no sense are we suggesting that brief mindfulness interventions are as effective as long-term training programs in shaping behavior. Nevertheless, emerging evidence indicates that even minimal mindfulness training is sufficient to facilitate fundamental aspects of human cognition. Elucidating the precise nature of these effects will be an important task for future research [32].

Conclusions

The finding that brief mindfulness training improves ToM may have implications that extend beyond the laboratory. Underlying harmonious living is the ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of other social agents. Indeed, ToM is deemed by many to be one of the pinnacles of human evolution. While extant research has focused primarily on explicating the problems that emerge when mindreading goes awry, recent investigations have shifted instead to the identification of strategies (and interventions) that enhance person understanding [8]. As the current findings demonstrate, brief mindfulness-based meditation comprises just such a tactic. At least with respect to affective ToM, mindful attention facilitates mindreading, although additional research will be required to scrutinize the hypothesized link between mindfulness and ToM. Of particular importance will be work exploring the process and consequences of brief mindfulness meditation in applied settings, such as a longitudinal study with a clinical population.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the participants and reviewers (J. Smallwood and P. Williams) for helpful comments on previous version of this manuscript.