Reader Comments

Post a new comment on this article

Evidence for replication-dependent nucleotide skews in C. albicans centromeric regions

Posted by amnonkoren on 26 Oct 2012 at 22:57 GMT

Recent
http://plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0045050#article1.front1.article-meta1.abstract1.p1

The author concludes that “skew jumps at C. albicans centromeres are not related to replication” based on two sets of comparisons: the first is to skew patterns at S. cerevisiae replication origins and the second to skew gradients along putative interorigin intervals in C. albicans.

However, in suggesting this conclusion, the author has overlooked several important observations:
- The centromeric replication origins in C. albicans are unique in being particularly efficient origins that are stable over evolutionary time. In contrast, all other considered replication origins show limited efficiency and are only active in a subset of cell cycles.
- The centromeric regions in C. albicans (and closely related yeast species) are determined epigenetically and without any sequence restrictions; the underlying sequence, free of selective constraint, evolves rapidly. In addition, there is no transcriptional activity in these centromeric regions. Any replication-dependent mutational bias will therefore be amplified over evolutionary time in these regions.
- Candida albicans centromeres are flanked by repetitive sequences and many of them by inverted repeats. These repeats may function as barrier elements for the replication forks emanating from the centromere (and possibly for incoming replication forks heading towards the centromere).
- There are differences between chromosomes in the pattern of decrease in skew levels as a function of distance from the centromere in C. albicans. Extra care should be taken when making conclusions based on the average pattern.
- Centromeric nucleosomes wrap DNA in a right-handed manner, in contrast to canonical nucleosomes, which wrap DNA in a left-handed manner.
- The centromeric origins in C. albicans are well ascertained and precisely mapped. In contrast, other replication origins in this organism could currently only be deduced based on peaks in the replication timing profile, which are predictive of origin locations to a maximal resolution of several Kbs.

Taken together, centromeric replication origins in C. albicans are very unlike any other described origin, and there is no basis for the claim that the unique skew patterns observed in these regions are not the result of replication. On the contrary, skews associated with other described replication origins are also influenced by origin efficiency, incoming forks, selection and transcription. It is very reasonable that replication forks with different biological properties would give rise to sequence skews of different magnitudes and patterns. If anything, the evidence is stronger for skew patterns being the result of DNA replication in Candida centromeric regions than at any other origin regions.

Amnon Koren and Judith Berman

No competing interests declared.

RE: Evidence for replication-dependent nucleotide skews in C. albicans centromeric regions

mmarsolierkergoat replied to amnonkoren on 05 Nov 2012 at 16:44 GMT

Indeed, it is always possible to hypothesize that the centromeres of C. albicans exhibit GC and TA replication-related skews with unique characteristics in terms of direction and magnitude compared to the other origin loci.
Let's consider GC skews, which are the more significant. The evidence for a genome-wide replication-associated GC skew corresponding to an enrichment in G for the lagging strand is strong. Global analysis of interorigin intervals clearly shows an increase in GC skew with interorigin position (P values equal to 4x10-6 and 2x10-7 for third codon positions and for intergenes, respectively). It is true that the positions of replication origins determined through analysis of replication timing profiles are not precisely defined. This lack of precision makes it all the more remarkable to find a clear increase in GC skew along interorigin intervals. More precise localization of replication origins should increase the significance of this result.
If the GC skew variations observed at centromeres are linked to replication, then it means that in these parts of the genome, replication-related mutation rates are much higher than elsewhere and lead to different values of GC skews (with the lagging strand enriched in C, not in G). Since we don't currently know what determines the different mutation rates of the leading and lagging strands and since centromeres have special characteristics like the presence of CENP-A, this hypothesis cannot be formally ruled out.
However, it has to be noted that, in this case, the pattern of GC skew variations (Figure 3D in (Koren et al., 2010. http://www.plosgenetics.o...)) indicates that only the centromeric core sequences (on average about 5 to 6 kb on each chromosome) would be submitted to these centromere-specific substitution rates. It could be objected that Figure 3D in (Koren et al., 2010) and Figure 6A in (Marsolier-Kergoat, 2012) represent GC skew variations that take into account all sequences (genes and intergenes), and that the coding sequences bordering the centromeres could be submitted to selective constraints preventing GC skew formation. However, the same pattern of GC skew variation (with GC skew values going back to zero at a distance of ~ 3 kb from the zero-intersection point) is also observed when only intergenic sequences are taken into account (MCMK, unpublished results). If adjacent intergenic sequences located farther than 3 kb away from the centromere GC skew zero-intersection point were submitted to these centromere-specific substitution rates, they should also exhibit high skew values (either positive or negative), which is not the case.
To sum up, one of the conclusions of the article (Marsolier-Kergoat, 2012) could be qualified as follows: "Under the assumption that the amplitude and direction of replication-related skews are similar in all parts of C. albicans genome, our results indicate that the skew variations at centromeres are not associated with replication. If the skew variations at centromeres were linked to replication, then the amplitude and the direction of these skews would be specific to the core centromeric sequences."

However, even if the association of skew variations at centromeres with replication cannot be theoretically excluded, alternative hypotheses cannot be ruled out either. One possibility is that C. albicans centromeres are under selective pressure to form a bipartite structure with a 5' CA-rich sequence followed by a 3' GT-rich sequence on a single strand. It is said in the above comment that the sequences of C. albicans centromeres are "free of selective constraint", but this assumption is not obvious. In an elegant article (Ketel et al., 2009. http://www.plosgenetics.o...), Berman and collaborators showed that neocentromeres can form at multiple positions on C. albicans chromosome 5, which demonstrates indeed that there are no strict sequence requirements for centromeres on this chromosome. However, this article also showed that the loss rate of chromosomes harboring neocentromeres are higher than the loss rate of chromosomes with wild-type centromeres, and that neocentromeres are less stable and tend to associate with less CENP-A that wild-type centromeres. Moreover, another article (Sanyal et al., 2004. http://www.pnas.org/conte...) reported that the deletion of the centromere on C. albicans chromosome 7 resulted in high levels of chromosome 7 instability, suggesting that neocentromeres do not form efficiency on this chromosome. The facts that neocentromeres do not form efficiently on all chromosomes and are not as functional as wild-type centromeres suggest that some selective pressure could lead to the fixation in the centromeric sequences of mutations that improve their efficiency. It is therefore plausible that the specific composition of C. albicans centromeres could stem from functional constraints.

Marie-Claude Marsolier-Kergoat.

No competing interests declared.

RE: RE: Evidence for replication-dependent nucleotide skews in C. albicans centromeric regions

amnonkoren replied to mmarsolierkergoat on 03 Mar 2013 at 00:19 GMT

The centromeric skew patterns need not imply elevated mutation rates but instead can be explained by a constant pressure for accumulating specific mutations flanking the replication origin. Barrier elements such as the inverted repeats flanking many of the the centromeres can explain the drop in skew signals.

All evidence points to a lack of sequence constraints on centromere locations. This includes evolutionary comparisons and experiments, including a recent paper (Thakur and Sanyal, 2013) showing that centromeres function regardless of underlying sequence. Replication origins, which are centered precisely at the skew transition points, remain the best explanation for centromeric skews in Candida albicans and related species.

Amnon Koren and Judith Berman

No competing interests declared.